Marija Gimbutas Goddess
The most important researcher of the Goddess Civilizations was archaeologist Marija Gimbutas (1921–1994). Gimbutas, of Lithuanian origin, was a professor at Harvard and was considered the greatest expert on the prehistory of Eastern Europe. A turning point in her career was an independent excavation she conducted in southeastern Europe, during which she found thousands of Goddess figurines and very few figurines of Gods. She visited every museum and every excavation of Neolithic finds (Goddess culture Period) in Eastern Europe, asking herself: what is the meaning of what she was seeing?
Slowly, a story of a vanished culture emerged—a utopian society living in harmony, prosperity, and cooperation. In all places, she discovered an advanced and sophisticated human culture, but also one that was thoughtful and supportive.
Gimbutas excavated and discovered settlements with advanced technologies, sacred crafts, art, music, dance, and a unique type of religion and spirituality, expressed in the representations of humans in female figurines. According to Gimbutas, with the beginning of agriculture and the transition to living in villages, a culture emerged that was led by female priestesses who sanctified life and craft. It worshipped a female deity, and therefore, she called it the “Goddess Civilization.”
Gimbutas suggested that the ancients were more philosophically minded than is commonly thought. Human activities such as grinding wheat, baking bread, weaving, and spinning were considered sacred, and the house was also seen as a temple. The Goddess controlled the lives of humans, plants, and animals. The “old religion” centered around the cycle of life: birth, growth, maturity, aging, death, and rebirth. Human life stages were linked to the cycles of animals and agriculture. It was a society where people cooperated with each other and treated nature with respect. The values fostered were responsibility, consideration, awareness, and care.
According to Gimbutas, Goddess civilizations existed throughout Europe in general and the Balkans in particular. Society was matriarchal, meaning that the family unit was maintained by the woman, and the man moved to live in the woman’s village, not vice versa. Often, the nuclear family consisted of a woman and her children, while the men lived in groups and engaged in various projects. Sex was free and sacred, and often, they did not know who the father of the child was, until the child grew up and similarities between him and one of the lovers were discovered.
Furthermore, the village was led by priestesses, a kind of shaman, who were also prophetesses, healers and teachers. The village people made decisions together in assemblies and verified their decisions against the invisible worlds with the help of rituals. The Goddess civilizations had rituals that included music, dance, and shamanic trance states, in which they worshipped the mother Goddess, who was involved in all aspects of life. That is why we find figurines of her everywhere. Goddess civilizations had a developed spirituality and morality, which was different from our own.
Socially, it was a utopian time in which there was no large-scale violence, power struggles, or wars. Conflicts were resolved in other ways. People lived in harmony, peace, and cooperation, emphasizing values of awareness, caring, responsibility, and attentiveness to each other and to other forms of life: plants, animals, and even inanimate objects.
Cooperation existed beyond the village level—on a national and international scale. The Goddess Civilizations encouraged trade and the exchange of goods, developing long-distance trade routes. Through this trade network, Goddess beliefs and values spread everywhere, along with technological inventions and material goods. As a result, we find the same characteristics in Goddess figurines across different regions, allowing us to reconstruct their meaning.
The ultimate expression of the Goddess belief system was the connection with Mother Earth, whose energies could be felt—especially at specific times and places. The Goddess manifested through the cycles of the earth: the four seasons, day and night, the cycle of water and blood, the cycles of women, and was also responsible for the transitions between this world and the other world—the cycles of life and death, birth, and rites of passage.
The world was perceived as existing on several levels, involving different dimensions, with other realms of existence beyond this one who could be approached through rituals and trance states. The Goddess made it possible to connect with them. Religion and worship, art, and abstract thought developed under her auspices.
Gimbutas reached all these conclusions through her exposure to archaeological remains from Neolithic times around the Balkan, discovered both in her own excavations and those of others. She interpreted the findings and reconstructed the social, moral, and religious structures of these bygone civilizations using a method she developed called Archaeomythology, which integrates comparative religion, mythology, language, and history with archaeology. As a result of her insights, she introduced the concepts of “Old Europe” and “Goddess Civilization” in 1968 to describe this forgotten period of human history.
The first book detailing her new worldview was titled “The Gods and Goddesses of Old Europe, 3,500–7,000 BC”, published in 1974. It was later rewritten under the title “The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe: Myth and Cult Image”. With this, she faced resistance from the academic establishment. The interpretation of prehistoric ideology was considered taboo, and the way she reached her conclusions was deemed unscientific. Indeed, she relied heavily on intuition, and one might even say on channelling. At the same time, her conclusions cannot be dismissed—many of the greatest discoveries in history were made in a similar way. Recent findings in the Middle East support her hypotheses.
In 1989, she published the book “Language of the Goddess”, in which she claimed that the symbols appearing on artifacts from the Goddess Civilizations “represent the grammar and syntax of a kind of super language through which a whole array of meanings passes.” This super language reveals sacred relationships between human beings and the natural world. According to her, the figurines, paintings, and urns of the ancient Goddess civilizations in Europe contain a symbolic language that has not yet been deciphered. This suggests that the ancient Goddess culture people could think in a symbolic and abstract way, and that this ability may have existed in humans as early as 30,000 years ago.
In 1991, she published the book “Civilization of the Goddess”, in which she argued that ancient Europe was a true culture that supported goodness. Parts of this culture merged with the invading Indo-European tribes. Her last book, published posthumously in 1999, was titled “The Living Goddess”.
As early as the 1950s, she developed the “Kurgan hypothesis”, which claims that the Indo-European peoples that originated in the Russian steppes began invading Europe and the Balkans in the 3rd millennium BCE. These Indo-European tribes were a patriarchal society with a tradition of war, bringing death and destruction to the ancient Goddess Civilization. One of the characteristics of these tribes was the burial mounds known as “kurgans.”
This was one of the greatest changes in history—a transition from a matriarchal culture to a patriarchal one—which, according to Gimbutas, led humanity closer to self-destruction through wars, social stratification, and injustice. She proposed a return to the values of the ancient Goddess Culture, believing that the value of studying history lies in the lessons we learn from it. She argued that the existence of the ancient Goddess Civilizations in the Balkans should serve as a model for the future.
Representations of the Goddess
With the emergence of the Goddess Culture civilizations, we find many representations of Goddesses in human form. Until then, there had been paintings of humans with animal features (for example, with horns), near animals, or in the context of animals (hunting). We find few paintings of humans as such and even fewer figurines of them. The transition to agriculture and settled life in houses shifted the emphasis from the animal world to the human. God appeared in human form—except that it was not a man, but a woman, a Goddess.
According to Eliade, Neolithic art (Goddess Culture) separates itself from the naturalistic expressions of nature found in cave paintings and instead produces art that is largely symbolic, based on images of the Goddess. It represents a complex and developed society living in large settlements, with an explosion of figurine production expressing developed and new spirituality. The human body becomes the main point of reference, and art treats it as a supporter, an enabler, and a creator—symbolically rather than necessarily physically.
The art of the Goddess Civilizations represents all stages of human and natural life. The Goddess is the creator of plants, animals, and humans, from whom everything comes and to whom everything returns. Therefore, the human body is not presented in a purely naturalistic way but rather as they perceived its spiritual function. Its representation is abstract or exaggerated, and this is not by chance. It can be said that the naturalistic rock art of the cavemen gave way to religious art in the service of the Goddess.
The discoveries of various Goddess figurines throughout the Balkans helped Marija Gimbutas consolidate her insights into the religious beliefs of the Goddess Civilizations. The characteristics of the figurines, which appeared repeatedly in many different places (such as large eyes), along with their locations and contexts, revealed to her the beliefs of ancient times.
One of the main representations of the Goddess is that of the fertility Goddess, in which she appears with huge hips, usually sitting, her large hips aiding this position. However, there are different variants of the fertility Goddess. Many of the statues have large breasts or very large buttocks. The breasts symbolize the nourishing and life-giving force. Sometimes the breasts are small while the buttocks and pelvis are emphasized, symbolizing life-giving and nourishment. The buttocks are often exaggerated, sometimes shaped like a life-giving egg, or divided in two, symbolizing a woman becoming two during pregnancy. Sometimes she holds one breast in her left hand and points to her thigh with her right hand.
In many figurines of the fertility Goddess, her sexual aspect is emphasized. The vagina and female genitalia are highlighted—sometimes represented schematically as a triangle, either empty or dotted with dots, or as an abstract line. In some cases, it appears in its natural form, while at other times it is depicted as a bud giving life. Individual erotic statues have also been found.
A triangle representing the female genitalia is the symbol of the Goddess. The triangle appears in many places on Goddess figurines, as well as on ceramics and stone vessels, alongside other Goddess symbols such as chevrons, waves, dots, or lines. Many triangular clay altars and triangular tombstones have been found. Sometimes two triangles appear in art, one on top of the other, with their sharp ends meeting, forming the shape of a person with a narrow belt or resembling the constellation Orion. Occasionally, triangles are hidden in the body shapes of Goddess figurines—whether in the pelvis or even in the hands—creating triangular forms in relation to the body or head.
The Goddess controls all stages of life—birth, death, and rebirth, growth and withering—and therefore has a variety of additional appearances. In many figurines, the face has a strange shape; sometimes it is round, while in others, it has angular cheekbones. The eyes are prominent and huge, giving the figures an alien appearance. This is characteristic of the figurines from the Vinča culture in the Balkans. The invention of clay made it possible to create complex sculptural figurines. The prominent eyes direct a person toward awareness, alertness, and attentiveness to both them and their environment. For this reason, many of the figurines were found in or near grain bins (as guardians), silos, or workshops sites.
Other types of figurines were used to accompany the dead in the tomb. These figurines were usually made of bone or stone and were characterized by folded hands or arms close to the body, small breasts, blurred faces, and schematic body representations, giving them an appearance devoid of life force. They represent the death aspect of the Goddess, who accompanies humans in their transition to the next world. Sometimes, a mask appears on the face, with no facial features except for a large nose.
The Goddess controlled the cycles of life and death, nature, and the earth. Sometimes, she was represented through animals or as a combination of animals and human forms. Today, we live in a world cut off from nature, unaware of the living world around us. However, during the time of the Goddess, animals frequently visited the villages; they were seen and heard and were part of everyday life. Whether it was the deer, which was still hunted with a bow and arrow, the snake and the turtle, which were house guests, the birds of prey that fed on carrion, or even larger animals such as the bear—all played an important role in the ancient Goddess religion.
Thus, we find Goddess figurines that combine human figures with various animals, such as fish, snakes, frogs, pigs, dogs, bears, goats, stags, birds of prey, and owls. At Lepenski Vir, on the banks of the Danube, for example, figurines of a woman combined with a fish have been found. The fish symbolizes fertility, its sudden appearance in water and its ability to multiply exponentially was considered miraculous. The Goddess controlled not only the earth but also the seas, rivers, and lakes.
Water was also associated with snakes and frogs, which were sacred animals of the Goddess. The frog, being amphibious and living both in water and on land, reflected the dual nature of the Goddess, who often appeared in a dual form—suggesting the two sides of femininity: young and old, East and West, life and death. The frog symbolized all of this, but in addition, due to its reproductive nature—and perhaps for reasons we do not yet understand—it was also a symbol of sexuality. If someone was told during the Goddess’s culture period that she “looks like a frog,” it would likely have been considered a compliment. This is why figurines of frog Goddesses with emphasized genitals have been found in various parts of the world (for example, frog Goddesses in Anatolia from the 7th millennium BCE). Interestingly, in later times, the frog became associated with witchcraft.
Snakes were also associated with water because some of them can live in water and, primarily, because of their wavy movement, which resembled the flow of water. However, they were mainly linked to regeneration, healing, and life after death—processes for which the Goddess was responsible. Snakes sleep in the winter and emerge in the summer. They can kill with their venom, yet they can also heal. However, their most important feature, which identified them with regeneration, was their habit of shedding their skin once a year. This represented humanity’s hope that, with the help of the Goddess, one could shed their old skin and be reborn in a new body into the spiritual worlds after death. For this reason, snakes were considered the embodiment of ancestral spirits.
The snake is a recurring archetype in our subconscious, appearing in art and mythology everywhere (such as the serpent in the Garden of Eden). There are many depictions of Goddess figurines combined with snakes. The snake Goddess often appears as a figure sitting in a yoga position, with round eyes and an elongated mouth. Sometimes Goddess figurines have a wide mouth with protruding teeth below, resembling the snakes bitting teeth. Snake figures and decorations frequently appear on clay vessels (mainly on handles), often accompanied by spirals, zigzags, and wavy lines that imitate the movement of a snake.
Another animal that presented and symbolized the Goddess was the bird. Birds were considered connectors between worlds, bridging the earth and the sky by virtue of their ability to fly. The sky was associated with the protective and nourishing nature of the Goddess. The Goddess had a visible aspect related to the earth and an unseen aspect connected to the sky. Birds represented this unseen aspect.
Birds laid eggs, which symbolized birth and the miracle of life emerging from seemingly lifeless matter—an expression of the miraculous fertility of the Goddess. Thus, we find Goddess figurines in Vinča and other Goddess Civilizations in the Balkans that combine human motifs with an egg. Some Goddess figurines also feature a blend of bird and human characteristics, sometimes resembling specific birds such as ducks, swans, crows, owls, hawks, and more. The bird Goddess often has a beak-like nose, exaggerated buttocks, wing-like hands, and other bird-like features.
Birds of prey held a prominent place as representatives of the Goddess, especially her death aspect. The Goddess was responsible not only for birth and fertility but also for death, decay, and destruction. For this reason, flutes made from eagle bones have been found. Scavenger birds were believed to transport the dead from the world of the living to the afterlife. Some researchers suggest that bodies were placed in sky temples so that eagles would consume their flesh, as removing the flesh was considered an essential step in completing the burial process. This may explain the drawings of eagles found at Çatalhöyük.
A very important and popular bird of prey in the Goddess’s culture was the owl. It was revered not only because it fed on carrion but also because of its great sensitivity and ability to navigate in the dark. The owl symbolized awareness, sensitivity, and attentiveness—all qualities that the Goddess Civilization cultivated and admired.
The Goddess was also represented and symbolized by domesticated animals. For example, the dog was associated with the moon, which was, to a large extent, the most important and essential symbol of the Goddess’s power. However, another domesticated animal associated with the moon and symbolic of the Goddess was the pig—or more precisely, the sow. The pig is characterized by its rapid weight gain during pregnancy, symbolizing the full moon. It also represented the ripening of fruits and crops and the fertilizing power of nature. The sow was considered the benefactor of wheat germination and childbirth. Therefore, many figurines of the pig Goddess have been found near bread ovens. Sometimes grains of wheat were discovered inside these statues, and in some cases, flour was mixed into the clay used to create them—all of which proves that these Goddess figurines were not toys but religious representations.
Animals with prominent horns also represented the Goddess. In this context, the deer, the gazelle, and the ibex can be considered symbols of the Goddess. The deer, which lives in northern regions, sheds its antlers in the fall and regrows them in the spring, symbolizing the cycles of nature. The branched shape of its antlers represented the tree of life. The gazelle’s antlers, although straight and permanent, were significant because the hair beneath them (on the head) changes with the seasons, making it a symbol of cycles and transformation. The ibex, with its round-shaped horns, was associated with the moon, which was seen as the weaver of the universe—the feminine force that unites.
According to Rappenglück, all over the world, the stag was an astral symbol, usually solar and sometimes lunar, indicating the cycles of time and the lunar or solar year. It heralded the sunrise, especially in autumn. Its horns symbolized the cycle of life from birth to death and the resurrection of nature, attributed to the cosmic tree of life, which was identified with the Milky Way. Therefore, the stag was associated with the power of cosmic creation. In other words, the ancients observed the synchronization between the sidereal year, the cycles of the sun and moon, and the life cycles of animals—including the growth of their horns and hair, as well as their conception and procreation periods.
The cow and the bear also represented the Goddess. The cow was domesticated later than the goat and the sheep, but its status rose over time, reaching a position of prominence toward the end of the Goddess Culture era (the Chalcolithic period). This rise may not have been directly related to the development of agriculture but rather to the change in astrological ages, particularly the beginning of the Age of the Bull 6,000 years ago.
The bear held an important place in the Goddess religion. Bears hibernate in burrows throughout the winter and awaken in the spring, symbolizing the Goddess’s regenerative nature. Entering the burrow represented death and a return to the womb, while emerging in the spring symbolized resurrection. The bear embodied the wild power of nature. For this reason, the ancients identified a prominent constellation in the sky as the Great Bear and another as the Little Bear. The Great Bear contains a square (trapezoid) of stars that, in addition to pointing to the North Star, was considered the foundation of the four pillars that upheld the Earth—at least according to Michael Rappenglück, who argued that the astronomical knowledge of the ancients was reflected in their art and the architecture of their houses.
At this point, one might argue that, according to what is presented in this book, almost every animal represents the Goddess—and that this is ridiculous. But before dismissing what is written, it is important to understand that the Goddess is nature, and nature includes everything. There is a network of sympathetic connections between all things, expressed in different life forms, each in its own way.
Some may argue that the “figurines” of the Goddesses are merely toys or a form of primitive art created by the ancients. However, this perspective fails to consider the fact that humans are inherently inclined toward religion. The reality is that in all “primitive” cultures around the world—even those that had no contact with other human societies, such as the Aborigines in Australia or the Indigenous peoples of the Amazon—a system of deep religious beliefs developed. These beliefs were often based on shamanism and a reverence for Mother Earth and the cycles of life, death, and rebirth. This suggests that even if these beliefs do not correspond to an external reality, they are archetypes that exist within us. It is impossible for a human society to exist without religion, especially primitive societies. If this is the case, then art must be interpreted in a religious context.
When we talk about religion in ancient times, we are not referring to something abstract, a philosophy, or a system of laws derived from faith. Rather, it was a different way of observing nature—a feeling that humans were part of something greater. During the Goddess Culture period, religion was linked to the cycles of life, animals, plants, the stages of human existence, and life after death. The Goddess gave life but also took it away. She brought fertility, birth, development, and culture, but also the magic of life, beauty, and aesthetics.
Symbolic language
Marija Gimbutas published the book Language of the Goddess in 1989, in which she claims that the symbols of ancient Europe “represent the grammar and syntax of a kind of language through which a whole array of meanings passes.” This language appears on urns and consists of geometric symbols that have not yet been deciphered (it may be related to other undeciphered languages of ancient Crete and Cyprus). The super language of the Goddess Civilization focuses on the sacred relationships between humans and the natural world, as well as between people themselves, placing women and the sacred feminine at the center of religious and cultural life.
It is important to understand that the Goddess Culture relied on prominent use of the right hemisphere of the brain, which thinks in images and symbols, rather than the left hemisphere, which is analytical and focuses on details, numbers, and dry facts. The thinking of the Goddess Culture was mythical, narrative, and symbolic, linking different levels and meanings, creating a kind of web of understanding. This is expressed in the various Goddess figurines, which feature geometric web designs.
One of the characteristics of the art of that period is the appearance of geometric patterns on ceramics, pebbles, and stone slabs—the meaning of which remains unknown—particularly on objects used by humans. The art is schematic and geometric and can be seen as a form of language. There is also abstraction in human representations: stripes symbolizing eyes, circles symbolizing mouths, and so on.
The procreative nature of the Goddess was not, in my opinion, limited to the physical realm but also extended to the abstract realm of thought. It seems that the Goddess initiated humanity into the possibility of creating new forms of thought until it eventually learned to walk on its own. Lewis-Williams, on the other hand, interprets the geometric shapes as an expression of the first stage of the shamanic experience.
