Sufi Islam in the Balkans

Throughout Bosnia, Albania, and Kosovo, one can see numerous mosques, most of them built in the Ottoman style, with large domes and two or more minarets. Some of the mosques in the Balkans are ancient and magnificent—recognized as World Heritage sites—and visiting them is as meaningful, from an artistic and historical perspective, as visiting historic churches or synagogues. In places like Prizren, Sarajevo, and Berat, there are mosques built by famous architects such as Sinan (the chief architect of the Ottoman army, who also designed the walls of Jerusalem), as well as by lesser-known figures who served as governors or viziers in the empire. Some of these mosques contain beautiful paintings and intricate woodwork.

With the end of communist rule in the former Yugoslavia, Albania, and Kosovo, a religious revival has taken place, accompanied by the restoration of religious institutions. Within this broader renewal, the Sufi orders have also experienced a resurgence, along with the revival of pilgrimages and public celebrations—such as those of the Sufi orders of Bosnia in Belaja, or the pilgrimage to Mount Tomorr in Albania.

Today, Orthodox (Sunni) Islam has become the mainstream in Albania and Kosovo, and even more so in Bosnia. However, historically Balkan Islam was largely Sufi in character, and mosques served primarily for prayer, while the tekkes were the true centers of social and communal life. These tekkes served as institutions for education and spiritual learning, care for the needy, soup kitchens, festive gatherings, dispute resolution, healing practices, hospitality, and more. The flow of Muslim charity (waqf) passed mainly through the tekkes, not through the mosques.

In Islam, unlike in Christianity, a person can belong to multiple Sufi orders simultaneously, as the orders are often seen as complementary rather than exclusive. As a result, many tekkes (Sufi lodges) were established throughout the cities and villages of the Balkans, representing various orders that were widespread throughout the Muslim world, and especially in the Ottoman Empire. Among these, five orders were particularly prominent: the Naqshbandi, Qadiri, Halveti (Hilveti), Rifai, and Mevlevi (Mawlawi) orders.

The Naqshbandi Order

In the 19th century, the Naqshbandi Order rose in importance as a central element in the new Ottoman pan-Islamic vision promoted by sultans such as Abdul Hamid II and Mehmed V. The Naqshbandi became a universal, pan-Islamic, and highly orthodox order that advocated active participation in political life and enjoyed the support of the authorities. After the suppression of the Bektashi Order in 1826, following the dissolution of the Janissaries, many of the Bektashi tekkes were transferred to the Naqshbandi, including the prominent tekke in Blagaj, Bosnia.

The Naqshbandi Order was formally founded in 14th-century Uzbekistan by Sheikh Baha-ud-Din Naqshband, from whom it takes its name. However, some traditions claim that it was initiated some 200 years earlier by a mystic named Kajdvan, and others trace its roots back even before Islam as a mystical school of inner knowledge. From its Central Asian origins, the Naqshbandi spread throughout the Muslim world and became particularly influential in India, Central Asia, the Caucasus, and later the Balkans.

The teachings of the Naqshbandi are based on understanding the human system and achieving spiritual refinement through self-discipline, control over bodily impulses, and rigorous physical and mental exercises. The name “Naqshband” means “pattern” or “engraver,” referring to the imprinting of divine remembrance (dhikr) on the heart.

The Qadiri Order

The Qadiri Order was founded by the followers of ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Jilānī, who lived on the shores of the Caspian Sea in northern Persia and passed away in 1166. It is one of the largest and most widespread Sufi orders in the world. ʿAbd al-Qādir specialized in inducing deep spiritual states and was known for his miraculous deeds. Numerous miraculous attributes are ascribed to him, and he is often referred to as “The Rose of Baghdad.”

One famous story recounts that after many years of solitude and spiritual search in the wild, ʿAbd al-Qādir made his way to Baghdad, then the center of the Muslim world. The city’s sages came out to greet him and handed him a glass of water filled to the brim—symbolizing that Baghdad was already full of wisdom and had no room for another teacher. In response, ʿAbd al-Qādir miraculously produced a red rose, despite it being winter, and placed it gently on the surface of the water without spilling a drop. From that moment, he was known as the “Rose of Baghdad.”

ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Jilānī began teaching in Baghdad, and his reputation quickly grew. He is revered as the patron saint of saints (Qutb al-Awliyā’), the reviver of religion, the chief of angels, and more. His followers attribute to him 99 titles and believe that the Prophet Muhammad foretold his coming. His teachings, which emphasized a combination of mystical devotion and strict adherence to Islamic principles, spread rapidly during his lifetime and even more so after his death.

The Qadiri Order that emerged from his teachings is characterized by both its mystical practices and its firm religious foundations. Unlike some other Sufi orders, it is not centralized: each group of followers has its own path and spiritual leadership. This flexibility has contributed significantly to the Order’s wide distribution.

In Bosnia, several branches of the Qadiri Order are active, and it is considered one of the most widespread and influential Sufi paths in the region.

Khalwati Order

Some trace the origins of the Khalwati Order to Ḥasan al-Baṣrī, one of the earliest Sufi figures in Islam, though the first historically documented emergence of the order dates to the 14th century. The Khalwati path is deeply centered on solitude, retreat (khalwa), and meditation as essential means of attaining spiritual states and self-realization.

Among the various major Sufi orders that flourished in the Ottoman Empire, the Khalwatiyya was especially prominent. Its core teaching emphasized introspection and the inner world of the soul. In contrast to other Sufi traditions that sought God’s manifestations in nature or outward experience, the Khalwati focused on the belief that true reality resides within the self.

Central to the practice of the order were extended retreats of solitude. These were typically held in secluded spaces—small cells or corners of mosques or huts—and could last forty days or longer. During these retreats, adepts sought mystical visions and ascensions of the spirit. The purpose was purification, deepening of inner awareness, and connection with the Divine.

The principal formulator of the Khalwati path was Shaykh Sayyid Yaḥyā Bakuvi (also known as Shirvani), a 15th-century mystic from Baku (modern-day Azerbaijan). He authored the influential text Wird al-Sattār, which became foundational to almost all branches of the order.

The Khalwatiyya expanded significantly during the reign of Sultan Bayezid II (r. 1481–1512), who was known for his support of Sufism and religious minorities, including Jews. Under his patronage, the Khalwati Order became firmly entrenched in Ottoman society, especially in Anatolia and the Balkans, eventually splintering into numerous sub-orders. It stressed moral conduct (adab), collective remembrance (dhikr), and disciplined inner refinement through seclusion.

One of the order’s most famous voices was Niyazi-i Misri (17th century), a celebrated mystic poet who was associated not only with the Khalwatiyya but also with the Bektashi milieu. He was known for his spiritual depth and for his brief association with Shabbetai Zevi, the false messiah of the Jewish world.

The Khalwatiyya established centers throughout the Balkans, including a notable tekke in Berat, Albania. In Albania, it competed with the Bektashis for influence, while in Bosnia and Kosovo it rivaled the Naqshbandi Order.

Over time, the Khalwati Order gave rise to important sub-orders, among them the Jerrahis, who remain active in Istanbul to this day. In the 19th century, some Khalwati branches became involved in politics, which contributed to a decline in their spiritual influence and public prestige, though the tradition persists to this day in various forms.

Rifai Order

The Rifai Order was founded by Sheikh Ahmad Rifai in Basra at the end of the 12th century. Sheikh Ahmad Rifai was a cousin of Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, and to this day there is a spiritual closeness between the Rifai and Qadiri orders. He lived in southern Iraq, was an eloquent speaker, mastered spiritual sciences, and performed miracles. Many followers gathered around him.

The Rifai Order is known for its ecstatic rituals and extreme physical acts, such as walking on fire, taming snakes, stabbing the body without injury, and walking burning coals. These practices, resembling those of Indian fakirs, are unique to the Rifai and sometimes criticized by other Sufi orders.

In the Balkans, the Rifai Order holds a central place, though its tekkes are often mixed with other orders. This is the case in places like Visoko in Bosnia and Berat in Albania. It especially spread in rural areas of Bosnia and Kosovo, where the miraculous acts performed by its members made a strong impression on the population.

Branches of the Rifai Order in the Balkans often incorporate elements from other Sufi paths such as the Mevlevi or Bektashi. This reflects the Rifai principle of diverse learning: disciples are expected to study five different schools of Sufi thought and draw inspiration from all. This idea appears in the five-colored flag of the order, each color representing one of the five great teachers who are the pillars of Sufism according to Rifai tradition: Rifai (green), Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani (white), Dasuqi (green mixed with white), Badawi (red), and Sa’d al-Din (yellow). Muhammad, who encompasses all, is represented by the color black.

The Rifai have a special symbolic garment called the “hirka.” On their heads they wear a white cloth wrapped with a green band, like Sheikh Ahmad Rifai. Members of the order meet twice a week: on Sunday evening (marking the Prophet’s birthday) and on Thursday evening (the sacred Muslim night). During gatherings, they teach about caring for the “quiet soul” and overcoming the “animal soul,” followed by the dhikr ceremony. The Rifai dhikr is distinguished by the use of sacred drums.

The Mevlevi Order

The Mevlevi Order was founded in the 13th century by the mystic and poet Jalal ad-Din Rumi, who was of Persian origin but lived and worked in Seljuk Konya, Turkey. Rumi is considered the patron saint of the Turks and the most important poet in the Persian language. His poetry and writings had, and continue to have, a profound influence. After meeting the mysterious Shams of Tabriz, Rumi developed the whirling dance of the dervishes as a method of remembrance and a way to reach God.

Rumi taught a profound spiritual philosophy centered on the idea that man serves as an intermediary between God and the world. He wrote that from the moment man arrives in the physical world, a ladder is placed before him to allow him to escape. Man was once a mineral, then a plant, then an animal, and finally a human being who gained knowledge and faith. Ultimately, man will return to being an angel and dwell in heaven, but even that is not the final stage. Man will transcend the angelic realm and dissolve into divine unity, becoming part of the infinite ocean of the divine. Man was created in the image of God, and his essence is divine. “My image is imprinted in the heart of the king. The king’s heart will be sick without my image. The light of reason emanates from my thinking. The heavens were created from my original nature. I have the kingdom of the spirit. I was born together with the king, but I receive the light from him.”

After Rumi’s death, his son Sultan Veled formalized the teachings and founded the Mevlevi Order. He established an initiation path centered around the ritual of the whirling dance (Sema), which symbolizes the soul’s journey after death returning to its divine origin. The order was organized around urban centers called tekkes, which included a school, a Semahane (dance hall), lodgings, and public kitchens that served the community and the poor. The head cook held an important spiritual role, and the tekke became a center for not only ritual but also for learning, music, philosophy, science, and art.

Mevlevi tekkes were established throughout the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East. Some believe the Mevlevi Order was the largest and most influential in the Ottoman realm, shaping both court and popular culture. Their tekkes were often magnificent, serving as gathering places for Ottoman officials, military elites, and local notables. This was true in cities like Jerusalem, Sarajevo, and others across the empire.